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Reporting and Analyzing Inventory
Study Objectives
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Describe the steps in determining inventory quantities.
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Explain the basis of accounting for inventories and apply the inventory cost flow methods under a periodic inventory system.
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Explain the financial statement and tax effects of each of the inventory cost flow assumptions.
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Explain the lower of cost or market basis of accounting for inventories.
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Compute and interpret the inventory turnover ratio.
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Describe the LIFO reserve and explain its importance for comparing results of different companies.
Chapter Outline
Study Objective 1 - Describe the Steps in Determining Inventory Quantities
In a merchandising company, inventory consists of many different items. These items have two common characteristics: (1) they are owned by the company and (2) they are in a form ready for sale to customers. Only one inventory classification, merchandise inventory, is needed to describe the many different items that make up the total inventory.
- In a manufacturing company, inventory is usually classified into three categories: Finished goods, Work in process, and Raw materials. Raw materials inventory—the basic goods that will be used in production but have not yet been placed into production. Work in process—that portion of manufactured inventory that has been placed into the production process but is not yet complete. Finished goods inventory—items that are completed and ready for sale.
- By observing the levels and changes in the levels of these three inventory types, financial statement users can gain insight into management’s production plans.
- No matter whether they are using a periodic or perpetual inventory system, all companies need to determine inventory quantities at the end of the accounting period.
- If using a perpetual system, companies take a physical inventory at year-end for two purposes: (1) to check the accuracy of their perpetual inventory records and (2) to determine the amount of inventory lost due to wasted raw materials, shoplifting or employee theft.
- Companies using a period inventory system must take a physical inventory for two different purposes: (1) to determine the inventory on hand at the balance sheet date and (2) to determine the cost of goods sold for the period.
- Determining inventory quantities involves two steps: (1) taking the physical inventory of goods on hand and (2) determining the ownership of goods.
- Taking a physical inventory involves actually counting, weighing, or measuring each kind of inventory on hand.
- To determine ownership of goods, two questions must be answered:
- Do all of the goods included in the count belong to the company?
- Does the company own any goods that were not included in the count?
- To arrive at an accurate count, ownership of goods in transit (on board a truck, train, ship, or plane) must be determined. Goods in transit should be included in the inventory of the company that has legal title to the goods. Legal title is determined by the terms of the sale.
- When the terms are FOB (free on board) shipping point, ownership of the goods passes to the buyer when the public carrier accepts the goods from the seller.
- When the terms are FOB destination, ownership of the goods remains with the seller until the goods reach the buyer.
- In some lines of business, it is customary to hold the goods of other parties and try to sell the goods for them for a fee, but without taking ownership of the goods. These are called consigned goods.
For a merchandising company, the cost of goods sold is an expense and, traditionally, the largest expense item the company will have.
Gross profit is the amount a merchandising company has left after it deducts the cost of merchandise it sold from sales revenues. Gross profit is the amount available to cover other expenses and provide for net income.
Study Objective 2 - Explain the Basis of Accounting for Inventories and Apply the Inventory Cost Flow Methods under a Periodic Inventory System
After a company has determined the quantity of units of ending inventory, it applies unit costs to the quantities to determine the total cost of the ending inventory and the cost of goods sold.
Determining ending inventory can be complicated if the units on hand for a specific item of inventory have been purchased at different times and at different prices. Therefore, there are a different inventory costing methods available:
- Specific identification matches the cost of actual units sold and those in ending inventory.
Even though computers have made it possible to specifically match goods to the actual sale, specific identification is not a popular method. Refer to Illustration 6-11 and think about why specific identification is seldom used.
There is no accounting requirement that the cost flow assumption be consistent with the physical movement of the goods. One of the three cost flow assumptions may be used:
Which inventory method should a gasoline retailer use? (a) LIFO, (b) FIFO, (c) Average, or (d) any method that its management chooses.
Because it is a gasoline retailer, you might think that it must use average. The inventory cost flow method selected does not have to be consistent with the physical movement of the goods.
- First-in, First-out (FIFO) method assumes that the earliest goods purchased are the first to be sold. Under FIFO, the cost of the ending inventory is obtained by taking the unit cost of the most recent purchase and working backward until all units of inventory have been costed.
- FIFO often parallels the actual physical flow of goods
An exampleof FIFO follows:
Beginning inventory ............ 0 ..........-............. -0-
Purchases:
..........6/2 ..............................500 @ $100..... = $50,000
......... 6/8 ..............................400 @ ..125...... = 50,000
.........6/25 .............................350 @ ..130 =.......45,500
Goods available ................1,250 ...................$145,500
Ending inventory................. 250@ ..130 =....... 32,500
Cost of goods sold ............1,000.................... $113,000
When using FIFO, one assumes the first units in are the first units sold. Which of the above units were sold?
500 @ $100 = $ 50,000
400 @ 125 = 50,000
100 @ 130 = 13,000
Cost of goods sold $113,000
- Last-in, First-out (LIFO) method assumes that the last goods purchased are the first to be sold. LIFO seldom coincides with the actual physical flow of inventory. Under LIFO, the cost of the ending inventory is obtained by taking the unit cost the earliest goods available for sale and working forward until all units of inventory have been costed.
Beginning inventory is the earliest cost.
An example LIFO follows:
Beginning inventory ............ 0.........................0
Purchases:
........6/2 ...............................500 @ $100 =..... $50,000
........6/8 ...............................400 @ 125 = ..........50,000
........6/25 .............................350 @ 130 = ..........45,500
Goods available ...............1,250 .....................$145,500
Ending inventory ................250 @ 100 = ..........25,000
Cost of goods sold........... 1,000 .....................$120,500
When using LIFO, one assumes the last units in are the first units sold. Which of the above units were sold?
350 @ $130 = ..............$45,500
400 @ 125 =.................. 50,000
250 @ 100 =.................. 25,000
Cost of goods sold ....$120,500
Average cost method assumes that the goods available for sale are similar in nature and allocates the cost of goods available for sale on the basis of weighted average unit cost incurred. The weighted average unit cost is then applied to the units on hand to determine the cost of the ending inventory.
An example of average cost method follows:
....................................500 @ $100 = $50,000
....................................400 @ 125 = ....50,000
....................................350 @ 130 =.... 45,500
Goods available..... 1,250 ................$145,500
.............................$145,500 ÷ 1,250 = $116.40 per unit
Beginning inventory ................ 0 ..........................0
Purchases:
........6/2 ...........................500 .....@ $100 = .....$50,000
........6/8 ...........................400..... @ 125 = .........50,000
........6/25 .........................350..... @ 130 = .........45,500
Goods available ..........1,250 ..........................$145,500
Ending inventory ...........250..... @ 116.40 = .....29,100
Cost of goods sold ......1,000 ..........................$116,400
When using weighted-average, one assumes the units were similar in nature. Another way to find the cost of the units sold is to multiply the number of units sold by the average cost.
Cost of goods sold 1,000 @ $116.40 = $116,400
FIFO and LIFO are simply cost assumptions and are not intended to trace the physical flow of the merchandise through the firm.
With FIFO, the first units in are the first units out or sold. Thus, the cost of the first units purchased are the costs to show up in cost of goods sold, not ending inventory.
With LIFO, the cost of the last units in are the first assumed to have gone out, or to cost of goods sold, again not ending inventory.
Study Objective 3 - Explain the Financial Statement and Tax Effects of Each of the Inventory Cost Flow Assumptions
The reasons companies adopt different inventory cost flow methods are varied, but usually involve on the three following factors:
Income statement effects--In periods of increasing prices, FIFO reports the highest net income, LIFO the lowest net income and average cost falls in the middle. In periods of decreasing prices, the opposite is true. FIFO will report the lowest net income, LIFO the highest, with average cost in the middle.
- To management, higher net income is an advantage: (a) It causes external users to view the company more favorable. (b) Management bonuses, if based on net income, will be higher. Thus, when prices are rising, companies tend to prefer FIFO.
- In a period of increasing prices, the use of LIFO enables the company to avoid reporting paper or phantom profit.
Balance sheet effects--In a period of inflation, the costs allocated to ending inventory, using FIFO, will approximate current costs. Conversely, during a period of increasing prices, the costs allocated the ending inventory using LIFO will be significantly understated.
Tax Effects--Both inventory on the balance sheet and net income on the income statement are higher when FIFO is used in a period of inflation. Many companies have switched to LIFO because it yields the lowest net income and therefore, the lowest income tax liability in a period of increasing prices.
- LIFO Conformity Rule:
- A tax rule that requires if a company uses LIFO for tax purposes it must also use LIFO for financial reporting purposes.
- Thus, if a company uses LIFO to reduce its tax bills, it must show the lower net income on its external financial statements.
Which method of inventory would you choose if you were the CEO of a company just going public or CEO or a company short on cash?
Management chooses the inventory method. The company must follow it consistently, but there are procedures for making a change.
Study Objective 4 - Explain the Lower of Cost or Market Basis of Accounting for Inventories
When the value of inventory is lower than its cost, the inventory is written down to its market value by valuing the inventory at the lower of cost or market(LCM) in the period in which the price decline occurs.
- LCM is an example of conservatism.
- Under the LCM basis, market is defined as current replacement cost, not selling price.
- For a merchandising company, market is the cost of purchasing the same goods at the present time from the usual suppliers in the usual quantities.
What instances would lower of cost or market be needed? Why would a company want to use lower of cost of market in valuing the inventory?
Study Objective 5 - Compute and Interpret the Inventory Turnover Ratio
- Inventory turnover ratio is computed by dividing cost of goods sold by average inventory. The ratio tells how many times the inventory “turns over” (is sold) during the year.
Days in inventory, computed by dividing 365 days by the inventory turnover ratio, indicates the average age of the inventory
- High inventory turnover (low days in inventory) indicates the company is tying up little of its funds in inventory (has minimal inventory on hand at any one time). Although minimizing the funds tied up in inventory is efficient, it may lead to lost sales due to inventory shortages.
Management should closely monitor the inventory turnover ratio to achieve the best balance between too much and too little inventory.
Study Objective 6- Describe the LIFO Reserve and Explain its Importance for Comparing Results of Different Companies
- Accounting standards require firms using LIFO to report the amount by which inventory would be increased (or on occasion decreased) if the firm had instead been using FIFO. This amount is referred to as the LIFO reserve. Reporting the LIFO reserve enables analysts to make ad justments to compare companies that use different cost flow methods.
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The LIFO reserve ad justment is important in that it allows financial statements to be more comparable.
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