Student Project #4

PATHFINDER - BIBLIOGRAPHY

RESEARCH QUESTION:

How Prevalent is Antibiotic Resistance?

INTRODUCTION

Antibiotic resistance is the product of evolution. Every time a person or animal takes an antibiotic, it kills off only susceptible bacteria. A bacterium with a feature that enables it to resist the drug will survive. Since such a feature is genetically determined, that bacteria's offspring will inherit it, and will prosper and multiply at the "expense of their unresisting cousins." And resistant bacteria can transfer their good fortune to others, even others of different species, by passing on the "relevant bits" of their DNA. (Fisher, J.)

The result is that previously treatable bacteria have been converted into potentially lethal forms by the use and abuse of antibiotics. The spread of resistance is speeded up when antibiotics are over prescribed since the level of a bacteria's resistance seems to be directly related to the amount of antibiotic used against it. (Van Belkum, et. al.)

It is not clear what can be done now to ease the problem of antibiotic resistance. Local action may be effective in a few cases, but with the "growth of air travel suggests that future outbreaks are less likely to be localized enough to be treated in this way," says author Jeffrey Fisher. When their human or animal hosts jump on a plane, bacteria can hitch a lift, enabling them to invade a new population within a matter of hours.

The globalization of antibiotic treatments has aggravated the situation. The widespread of availability and cheapness in developing countries tempt doctors to over prescribe them. Changes in the pattern of health care in rich countries are also contributing to the problem. Since a shift from in-patient to out-patient care means that more people and animals take antibiotics without supervision. This means that more (in the case of animals their owners) will stray from their prescribed drug "regimes" in doing so prolonging infections and giving newly resistant mutations time to build up their numbers. Therefore spreading resistant strains into the community at large. ( Williams and Heymann) However, this discovery is not suprising since the inheritance of antibiotic resistance genes by bacterial pathogens has posed a major problem to the treatment of diseases and infection caused by bacteria.

The resistance to antibiotics has been observed since the 1950s (shortly after Flemings discovery of Penicillin), but it was ignored as the phenomenon was not widely prevalent. During the 1980s several bacteria have become resistant to the antibiotics which include Chloromphenical, Tetracycline, and Streptomycin. The rapid development and spread of bacterial resistance is making virtually all antibiotics obsolete. " It makes you wonder if the return to the pre-antibiotic era is in our immediate future" (Jacobs 1731)

Amabile-Cuevas, Carlos F., Maura Cardenas-Garcia, and Maurico Ludgar. "Antibiotic Resistance." American Scientist July/August 1995. http://www.amsci.org/amsci/articles/95articles/amabile-cue.html (accessed 10 March 1998).

"Antibiotic." Britannica CD 2.0. CD-ROM. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1997.

Chadwick, Derek J. and Jamie Goode. Antibiotic Resistance: Orgins, Evolution, Selection and Spread. New York: J. Wiley, 1997.

Chopra, Ian, John Hodgson, and Brian Metcalf. "New Approaches to the Control of Infections Caused By Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria: An Industry Perspective." JAMA 7 February 1996: 401-403.

In "New Approaches to the Control of Infections Caused by Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria," Chopra, Hodgson, and Metcalf feel that the widespread emergence of acquired antibiotic resistance over the past 40 years now represents a threat to global health. They expressed their concern in their current research to control infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Among their strategies being developed to meet this challenge are the development of "analogues of existing antibiotics and the design of enzyme inhibitors to frustrate microbial degradation of antibiotic," development of vaccines to prevent infections, and to look for new antibiotics to exert their effects by "novel mechanisms." They conclude that there is necessitity for substantial input into the development of new agents and therapies.

Davies, Julian. "Looking Back on Resistance Plasmids." Genetics April 1995: 1465

Julian Davies in his article states that the inheritance of resistance genes are acquired by bacterial pathogens through a process known as conjugation. This poses a major problem to the treatment of diseases and infection. In his "Looking Back on Resistance Plasmids" he mentions the bacterias that have become resistant to certain antibiotics. He concludes that the rapid development and spread of bacterial resistance will make virtually all antibiotics obsolete.

Fisher, Jeffrey A. The Plague Makers. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994.

Frank Ryan in his book review of "The Plague Makers" states that this book should be read by health care workers and that it would enlighten "lay readers for whom Dr. Fisher has provided a comprehensive guide to the proper use for antibiotics." This book is about how we are creating castastrophic new epidemics and what Dr. Fisher believes what we must do to avert them.

Fisher, Lawerence M. "Biotech Counter Attack on Resistant Bacteria: Small Companies Leading in Research." New York Times 26 April 1996, late ed., sec. D: 1.

Gilbert, Susan. "New Ouestions on Antibiotics for Ear Infections." New York Times 27 November 1996, late ed., sec. C: 8.

Jacobs, Christine. "Life in the Balance: Cell Walls and Antibiotic Resistance." Science 5 December 1997: 1731-1732.

Jones, Mark E., Edith Peters, and Anne-Marie Weersink. "Widespread Occurance of Integrons Causing Multiple Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria." Lancet 14 June 1997: 1742-1743.

Lappe, Marc. When Antibiotics Fail: Restoring the Ecology of the Body. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1995.

Levy, Stuart B. The Antibiotic Paradox. New York: Plemun Press, 1992.

Levy, Stuart B. " The Challenge of Antibiotic Resistance." Scientific American March 1998. http://www.sciam.com/1998/0398issue/0398levy.html

Stuart B. Levy's, a professor of Molecular biology and Microbiology, purpose for writing this work is to inform the public on how certain bacterial infections defy all antibiotics and how the resistance problem may be reversible. This article is intended of a wide range of audience. This is noted by his style of writing . The author concludes that reversal of resistance requires a new awareness of broad consequences of antibiotic use, a perspective that concerns itself not only with curing communities in the long run, so that bacteria susceptible to antibiotics will always be there to out compete resistant strains.

"Microbes: What Doesn't Kill Them Makes Them Stronger." http://whymes.news.wisc.edu/038badbugs/scope.html (accessed 12 March 1998).

Russell, A.D. Understanding Antibacterial Action and Resistance. New York: E. Horwood, 1990.

Ryan, Frank. "Overdoing the Miracle." New York Times 1 May 1994, late ed., sec. 7: 9.

Saltus, Richard. "Antibiotics: Overused and Misunderstood." American Health October1995: 50-55.

Williams, Rosamund J. and David L. Heymann. "Containment of Antibiotic Resistance." Science 20 February 1998: 1153-1154.

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These materials may be used for educational purposes, but please inform and credit the author and cite the source as: LSCI 105 Computerized Research. All commercial rights are reserved. Send comments or suggestions to: Eric Brenner at brenner@smcccd.cc.ca.us